This blog is a part of the assignment Paper 105: History of English Literature- From 1350 to 1900
Gender, Authorship & the Canon: From the Middle Ages to Victorian Britain
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Table of Contents
- Academic Details:
- Assignment Details:
- Abstract:
- Keywords:
- Research Question:
- Hypothesis:
1. Introduction
2. The Medieval Crucible: Authorship, Piety, and Preservation
- 2.1. Constraints of Manuscript Culture and Erasure
- 2.2. Agency in Religious Genres and the Communal Text
3. The Early Modern Shift: Print, Property, and Treason
- 3.1. Print Culture, Property, and Gender Transgression
- 3.2. The Feminist Challenge: Treason Our Text
4. The Romantic Canon: The De-Forming of Genius
- 4.1. The Gendered Ideal of Genius and Romantic Ideology
- 4.2. Systematic Devaluation and Canonical Erasure
5. Victorian Britain: Commercial Success and Critical Marginalization
- 5.1. The Paradox of Commercial Success
- 5.2. Institutional Gatekeeping: Critical Reviews and Pedagogical Practices
6. Conclusion
- References:
Academic Details:
- Name: Priya
A. Rathod
- Roll No.: 21
- Enrollment No.: 5108250028
- Sem.:
1
- Batch: 2025-27
- E-mail: priyarathod315@gmail.com
Assignment Details:
- Paper Name:
History of English Literature – From 1350 to 1900
- Paper No.: 105
- Paper Code:
22396
- Unit: 4
- Topic: Gender,
Authorship & the Canon: From the Middle Ages to Victorian Britain
- Submitted To:
Smt. Sujata Binoy Gardi, Department of English, Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji
Bhavnagar University
- Submitted Date: November 10, 2025
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using Quill Bot:
- Images: 4
- Words: 2405
- Characters: 16826
- Characters without spaces: 14415
- Paragraphs: 41
- Sentences : 132
- Reading time: 9m 37s
Abstract:
This
essay investigates the pervasive impact of gender on authorship and canonical
inclusion across English literary history, spanning from the Middle Ages
through the Victorian era. It argues that the literary canon has historically
functioned as a system of patriarchal exclusion, often obscuring, trivializing,
or actively deleting the contributions of women writers. Drawing on feminist
literary critique, the paper traces the evolution of women's challenges to this
established order, from the difficulties of preservation in medieval religious
culture to the institutional marginalization faced by prolific Victorian
authors. The core argument is that the struggle for canonical inclusion is
fundamentally a political act that exposes the deeply gendered nature of
"literary value" itself. By examining key historical moments and the
critical work of recovery, this study highlights the necessity of continually
re-evaluating the literary past to acknowledge the full spectrum of authorship.
Keywords:
Gender,
Authorship, Canon, Literary History, Middle Ages, Victorian, Feminism,
Canonical Resistance, Recovery.
Research Question:
How did gender-based limitations rooted in medieval manuscript culture, early modern print and property norms, Romantic ideology of “genius,” and Victorian institutional criticism shape women writers’ authorship and their exclusion from the English literary canon between 1350 and 1900?
Hypothesis:
The English literary canon from the Middle Ages to the Victorian era was systematically shaped by patriarchal structures that defined authorship, literary value, and cultural authority through masculine norms. Even when women achieved spiritual visibility, print circulation, or commercial popularity, evolving institutional mechanisms ranging from material erasure and moral policing to aesthetic devaluation and academic gatekeeping prevented their lasting canonical recognition. Therefore, the struggle for women’s canonical inclusion is inherently political, requiring not only recovery of suppressed authors but a redefinition of the evaluative criteria that historically legitimized literature.
1. Introduction
The
history of English literature is not merely a record of texts, but a selective
narrative of cultural power, deeply imprinted by patriarchal structures. The
"canon," the body of literature deemed essential and worthy of study,
has traditionally served as a fortress guarding this power, often at the
expense of women’s voices. This essay explores the dynamic relationship between
gender, the challenges of authorship, and the enduring struggle to redefine the
literary canon from the medieval period, where women's writing often existed on
the margins of religious or courtly patronage, to Victorian Britain, where
female authorship flourished commercially yet faced persistent institutional
and critical marginalization. The central objective of feminist critique, as
articulated by Lillian S. Robinson, is to treat the canon itself as a site of
political and ideological conflict, viewing the challenge as "Treason
Our Text" (Robinson). By tracing this centuries-long process of
exclusion and resistance, we can better appreciate the revolutionary effort
required to place female voices in the literary mainstream.
The
criteria for canonical status universal appeal, timeless genius, formal
innovation have historically been defined according to masculine experience and
aesthetic preference, effectively turning the evaluation of literature into an
exercise of maintaining cultural boundaries (Aiken). This paper will analyze
how these boundaries shifted in form but remained consistent in function across
four distinct literary eras, demonstrating that the mechanisms of exclusion
are sophisticated and adaptable, ranging from the destruction of
manuscripts in the medieval period to the institutional condescension of the
Victorian age (Wilson). Understanding these historical struggles is crucial for
recognizing that the inclusion of women's writing today is a direct result of
decades of dedicated feminist recovery work.
2. The Medieval Crucible:
Authorship, Piety, and Preservation
The
medieval period (c. 1350-1500) presented formidable barriers to female
authorship, primarily rooted in the intertwined constraints of institutional
religion, limited literacy, and the very nature of manuscript culture.
Authorship was often viewed through the lens of clerical authority, making it
difficult for women to claim literary legitimacy, as the act of writing was
intrinsically linked to male-dominated systems of knowledge production.
2.1. Constraints of Manuscript
Culture and Erasure
The
material conditions of manuscript culture meant that a woman's work was
precarious, requiring copying, circulation, and preservation the fundamental
prerequisites for canonical consideration. Without a dedicated scriptorium or a
powerful patron, a woman's text was highly susceptible to oblivion. Judith M.
Bennett explores the profound impact of this environment, noting that the
relationship between "Medievalism and Feminism" is
characterized by the need to peel back layers of misrepresentation to find
authentic female experience (Bennett 309). The early exclusion of women from
the developing literary canon was often a consequence of material conditions
and institutional erasure rather than an outright rejection of recognized
genius. When texts did survive, they often lacked a fixed authorial
identity, further complicating any later attempt at canonical inclusion.
Furthermore, Albrecht Classen notes the difficulty in recovering a continuous
history of women's literature due to the scarcity of records and the
male-dominated scholarly tradition, which prioritized established, often
Latinate, texts (Classen 13). The very absence of female voices in the early
canon is evidence of this structural impediment, not a reflection of a lack of
creative output.
2.2. Agency in Religious Genres and
the Communal Text
Medieval
women often found agency in religious genres, such as visionary texts,
mysticism, or hagiography, which provided a socially acceptable framework for
the written word. This spiritual authority sometimes circumvented the secular
ban on female instruction. However, as Liz Herbert Mcavoy and Diane Watt
observe, the task of understanding "Women’s Literary Culture and Late
Medieval English Writing" involves recognizing that much of what was
written was communal, ephemeral, or deliberately anonymous, rather than a
pursuit of individual fame (Mcavoy and Watt 3). Even significant works, such as
the Book of Margery Kempe or the writings of Julian of Norwich, survived only
through the efforts of male scribes or patrons, who often edited or framed the
texts, thus compromising the original intent and claiming a measure of textual
ownership. The medieval era established a template: female authority had to be
indirect, religiously sanctioned, or reliant on powerful familial networks,
making authentic, autonomous authorship an exceptional rarity. The
content of the writing itself was often judged based on its piety rather than
its literary merit, guaranteeing its relegation to a secondary, non-canonical
status in later centuries.
3. The Early Modern Shift: Print,
Property, and Treason
The
shift from manuscript to print culture in the Early Modern period (c.
1500-1700) introduced a new dynamic to female authorship: the concept of
intellectual property and the professionalization of writing. While print
offered the potential for wider circulation and fixed authorship, the social
constraints on women remained immense, transforming the act of publication into
a public negotiation of gender roles.
3.1. Print Culture, Property, and Gender Transgression
Writing
for publication, especially for profit, was often seen as a transgression of
gender norms, associated with moral laxity, desperation, or an unseemly desire
for public notice. This anxiety was rooted in the patriarchal fear of female
visibility and intellectual autonomy. Melissa E. Sanchez’s work on "Writing
Gender and Class in Early Modern England" reveals that female writers
often navigated a complicated intersectional space where gender was
inextricably linked with social class (Sanchez). For aristocratic women,
writing circulated privately within elite networks, avoiding public judgment;
for those lower in the social hierarchy, publication might be a necessary
economic venture, inviting harsher critique as they became associated with the
perceived vulgarity of the public marketplace. The literary marketplace
reinforced the image of the male author as the legitimate producer of cultural
currency, leading to the use of anonymity or male pseudonyms to gain critical
traction. The anxiety surrounding the female author's moral character often
overshadowed the critical assessment of her work.
3.2. The Feminist Challenge: Treason
Our Text
The
sheer existence of published works by writers like Aemilia Lanyer, Katherine
Philips, and the pioneering professional playwright
Aphra Behn represented a direct challenge to the burgeoning masculine canon. Behn, in particular, was one of the first Englishwomen to earn a living solely by writing, shattering the economic dependence that had restricted female literary production for centuries. Lillian S. Robinson’s seminal work, "Treason Our Text: Feminist Challenges to the Literary Canon," provides the theoretical framework for understanding this challenge. Robinson argues that the feminist project is not merely to add a few women to the list, but to expose the system that created the list. The literary canon is revealed as "a highly political matter" where gender, race, and class determine who is deemed worthy of study and who is marginalized (Robinson). The early modern author, whether writing plays, poems, or pamphlets, was committing a form of 'treason' against the established cultural order by claiming the authority inherent in the writer's voice. The subsequent critical reaction against figures like Behn whose works were deemed morally suspect and therefore excluded from canonical consideration demonstrates the power of moral judgment to act as a canonical filter, effectively censoring female intellectual and sexual freedom.
4. The Romantic Canon: The
De-Forming of Genius
The
Romantic period (c. 1780-1830), with its emphasis on individual genius,
spontaneous overflow of powerful feeling, and the construction of the solitary
male poet-prophet, proved particularly hostile to the inclusion of women. The
era’s celebration of male genius inadvertently led to the active exclusion
and marginalization of talented female contemporaries (Haefner).
4.1. The Gendered Ideal of Genius
and Romantic Ideology
The
canonical framework, built around the "Big Six" male poets,
reinforced a gendered split where men occupied the realm of high, universal,
and philosophical poetry (the 'Sublime'), while women were relegated to the
domestic, sentimental, or minor genres (the 'Beautiful'). Joel Haefner, in "(De)Forming
the Romantic Canon: The Case of Women Writers," explores how Romantic
ideology particularly its definition of the artist as an inspired, solitary
figure effectively “de-formed” the canon, erasing women’s contributions through
definitional sleight-of-hand. Critics and historians of the period
intentionally minimized or ignored the extensive output of women poets and
novelists, such as Felicia Hemans and Letitia Elizabeth Landon, ensuring that
the Romantic aesthetic was seen as a purely masculine achievement (Haefner).
The male Romantic poet became the mythological standard against which all
other writing was judged and found lacking.
4.2. Systematic Devaluation and
Canonical Erasure
This
process of canonical exclusion was intellectually rigorous and deliberate. It
involved Gendered Categorization, classifying female literary production
as charming, domestic, or morally instructive, but never truly sublime or
great. It also involved Aesthetic Redefinition, narrowing the definition
of "Romantic" to exclude the themes and forms favored by women
writers, such as social commentary, Gothic narratives, or detailed domestic
realism. For example, Mary Shelley's contributions were often dismissed as
secondary to her husband's work, despite the profound philosophical depth of
Frankenstein. This systematic devaluation is part of "The Question of
Canonicity," which Susan Hardy Aiken describes as an inquiry into the
criteria by which texts are judged, promoted, and perpetuated (Aiken). The
Romantic canon's commitment to the ideal of transcendent genius made it one of
the most difficult to penetrate, as it mythologized the male author as the
sole possessor of genuine creative power. The works of women were deemed
too emotionally tied to the body or the home to achieve the necessary
'universality' required for canonical distinction.
5. Victorian Britain: Commercial
Success and Critical Marginalization
The
Victorian era (c. 1837-1901) presents a fascinating paradox regarding female
authorship. Due to mass literacy and the expansion of the publishing industry,
women became highly prolific and commercially successful writers, particularly
in the novel genre. Novelists like George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans), Elizabeth
Gaskell, and the Brontës were central figures in the literary landscape.
5.1. The Paradox of Commercial
Success
Even
as women authors achieved widespread fame and commercial power, their status
within the permanent literary canon remained tenuous or subject to gendered
condescension. This phenomenon of simultaneous popularity and
marginalization is analyzed by Cheryl A. Wilson (Wilson ). The adoption of
male pseudonyms, most famously by George Eliot, highlights the continuing
necessity for women to mask their gender to gain serious critical
consideration in the public sphere. Despite their commercial dominance,
female authors were frequently reviewed in gendered categories, or their themes
were dismissed as being too narrow, too domestic, or too emotional when
compared to their male counterparts. This established a critical framework that
effectively ghettoized their work, preventing it from achieving the same
'universal' status granted to male authors. The novel itself, being a
commercially successful genre often associated with female readership, was
regarded as less serious than poetry or drama, compounding the marginalization.
5.2. Institutional Gatekeeping:
Critical Reviews and Pedagogical Practices
The canonical process in the Victorian period demonstrates that commercial success is not sufficient for literary immortality; institutional approval is the final gatekeeper. Wilson notes that literary reviews and, crucially, the formal establishment of English literature as an academic discipline (pedagogical practices), often served to place women's writing "in the margins," regardless of their immediate success (Wilson). The creation of university English departments in the late 19th century codified the existing male canon, making exclusion a matter of academic policy rather than mere critical opinion. As Susan Hardy Aiken suggests, the criteria used for canonicity what makes a text "good" enough are themselves social constructions (Aiken). The inclusion of women in the marketplace was tolerated, but their authority in the academy was resisted, meaning their writing was frequently studied as a sociological phenomenon or as an emotional mirror of domestic life, rather than as texts embodying sophisticated, autonomous artistic vision. This intellectual framing ensured that, despite their popularity, Victorian women writers were often footnotes in the official history of literary genius.
The
literary canon, spanning from the religious manuscripts of the Middle Ages to
the mass-produced novels of Victorian Britain, has been consistently shaped by
the forces of gender and patriarchal power. The journey of female authorship
has been one of continuous resistance, requiring women to overcome not only the
practical barriers of literacy and access to publishing but also the
ideological barriers embedded in the very definition of "genius,"
"art," and "universal truth." The transition across these
centuries reveals not an elimination of the barriers, but their transformation
from material and religious prohibitions to subtle critical and institutional
biases.
The
feminist challenge to the canon, as championed by scholars like Robinson, is
not simply an act of historical recovery but a necessary interrogation of
literary value itself. The recovery of medieval voices obscured by context,
the defiant publication of early modern writers, the battle against the
gendered definition of Romantic genius, and the ongoing struggle against the
critical marginalization of Victorian bestsellers all reveal that the canon is
an evolving, political document.
The work of acknowledging the full spectrum of authorship is far from complete. The historical evidence demonstrates that canonical exclusion is a pervasive, multi-generational phenomenon that adapts to changing literary marketplaces and critical trends across these eras. By integrating the insights of scholars focused on the Middle Ages (Bennett), Early Modern (Sanchez), Romantic (Haefner), and Victorian periods (Wilson), we gain a clear understanding of how gender has consistently mediated both the production and reception of literature. Ultimately, the future of literary study depends on recognizing that the history of literature must include the history of its systemic exclusions. The critical intervention of feminist scholarship has permanently politicized the canon, forcing us to acknowledge that all literary judgments are inextricably linked to the social structures that produce and preserve them.
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